Articles about Rebreathers (in English)

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UNCONSCIOUS RECREATIONAL REBREATHER DIVER AND RESCUE TECHNIQUES

by Cedric Verdier, Dr Howard Scoff and David R. Lee

Various techniques have been designed and tried to rescue an unconscious recreational rebreather diver who passed out underwater or at the surface. A one-year study done by the authors has allowed fine-tuning some techniques to increase the chances of survival. 

Introduction

There is at the moment no guideline and no protocol for the proper rescue of an unconscious recreational rebreather diver at the surface or underwater. Protocols exist in military or commercial diving contexts but cannot be applied in extenso by the recreational rebreather diving community.
The authors have studied in details 32 fatalities that occurred in the past few years in the rebreather diving community. They have also be witness of or directly involved in 3 cases of rebreather diver blackout that ended in a positive outcome. They were also instrumental in the testing phase of rescue techniques taught to 20 rebreather divers with no previous experience in rescue techniques.

Based on this study, a lot of important considerations have been noticed, emphasizing the lack of rescue training for rebreather divers. This training should emphasize:

1. Simple and easy to remember techniques. In a real life emergency the technique is always more complex to perform and more difficult to remember, even if the rescuerpractises it on a regular basis. Because of the inherent task-load experienced by any rebreather diver, a successful rescue tends to be more rare than its OC counterpart.

2. A protocol that is flexible enough to be used in most of the circumstances:

• Any kind of recreational diving equipment - dry suit or wet suit, Full-Face Mask (FFM) or usual half-mask.
• Any kind of environment - open water, flooded cave, ice, wreck penetration.
• Any depth and breathing gas - Deep Trimix dive with long decompression obligation, shallow no-decompression Nitrox dive.
• Any kind of rebreather – back-mounted or Over-the-Shoulder (OTS) counterlungs, Semi-Closed (SCR) and Closed Circuit Rebreathers (CCR), chest, back and side-mounted rebreathers, with or without Bailout Valve (BOV).

(to be continued)

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MOTOR SKILLS LEARNING AND CURRENT BAILOUT PROCEDURES IN RECREATIONAL REBREATHER DIVING

by Cedric Verdier and David R. Lee

Introduction

Bailing out to Open Circuit (OC) is like falling in the snow when you learn skiing. It’s a solution when facing a problem. Not always the most elegant solution, but most of the rebreather divers think it’s the easiest one and very often the most efficient one.
“If in doubt, bail out!” is definitely the most common advice a rebreather diver can read in the literature. But bailing out is actually much more than simply going off the loop and breathing from a second stage. There are loads of aspects to consider, loads of variable, loads of techniques and regional practices.

Current Practices

1. A. The reasons to bailout

There is often confusion between breathing on Open Circuit for a few minutes and actually doing a complete ascent on Open Circuit. In the first case, the loop is momentarily unsafe to breathe from (high or low pO2, unknown pO2, etc). In the second case, the rebreather diver considers their loop as definitely unsafe with no hope to recover.

1. A problem that can be fixed.

For example it could be the case if the diver experiences a Hyperoxia or a Hypoxia event. Something doesn’t work properly in the oxygen/driving gas injection but with most rebreathers, the diver can override it and fly the unit manually. A few minutes breathing Open Circuit (sanity breaths) will give time to come back to a safe loop content and get a clear head to properly assess the situation and fix the problem.
Divers using Closed-Circuit Rebreathers (CCR) have developed a large array of techniques to solve most of the mechanical/electronic problems that can occur with their units. Beginners and experienced rebreather divers alike practice skills like Manual Fly (manual O2 injection) or Semi-Closed Rebreather (SCR) mode during and after their training. The goal is to stay “on the loop” as much as possible.
Divers using Semi-Closed Circuit Rebreathers (SCR) have more limited options, especially for the Constant Mass Flow (CMF) models, and the ability to fix the problem underwater is reduced.

2. A problem that cannot be fixed.

Only two main problems can make the loop definitely unsafe to breathe: Total Loop Flooding (TLF) and severe Hypercapnia. In both case, the loop content is compromised and more or less the only option left is to switch to another source of gas to safely ascent to the surface.

(to be continued)

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A BUYER'S GUIDE TO REBREATHER DIVING

This morning when you woke up, you felt something strange, as if some minor and weird changes happened in your body. Nothing to do with Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, but the last few weeks, you found your dives to be very noisy, with all these bubbles escaping from your regulator and getting on your nerves when they reach your ears. You also found all your dive gear very heavy, with all these tanks and regulators to carry everywhere.
And you have this fancy and expensive dive computer with so many options you cannot use because they are designed for divers who have no common point with you, using state-of-the-art and highly complex equipment on their back and breathing esoteric mixes coming from remote planets.
So after reading magazines, walking your way along many booths in the dive shows, surfing the net looking for rebreather-related websites, you think the time has came to buy a rebreather. You made your decision and there couldn’t be any financial discussion about the mortgage for your nuclear bunker or the need to replace your 2 year old pink Jacuzzi.

1. 1st question: do you really need a rebreather?

It might sound like a strange question but it’s an important one. A closer look at the Internet forums and mailing lists and you’ll discover a lot of people selling their expensive and brand new rebreathers, the main reason being that most of the time, they just don’t use it! Yes you read it properly: after months of research and comparisons, after a financial investment the size of a small car, divers discover that they don’t need it, it’s too much hassle, they don’t have time or they don’t like it.
So better to think beforehand about cost versus benefits for you and the dives you do. It depends on:

The type of diving you do. A rebreather can definitely make sense for a diver who spends his/her time doing deep wreck dives or long video dives. But does it make sense for short and shallow reef dives in a tropical environment? It’s a question that only you can answer, but think about all the hassle to travel with a rebreather (even a small one!), filling Nitrox or Oxygen tanks, buying Sodalime, preparing the unit before the dive, cleaning it afterwards. All that work for something that can easily be done with a single tank you rent anywhere!

(to be continued)

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THE BAKER’S DOZEN REASONS… TO DE-INVERT YOUR CCR TANKS

By Cedric Verdier

Most of the Closed-Circuit Rebreathers on the market come with inverted tanks. It helps the diver to easily reach their tank valves and close them in case of emergency. That’s the main, if not the only benefit. Some rebreathers even come with upright tanks (Pelagian, RB80).
However many rebreather divers would like to have the opportunity to de-invert their tanks but only a handful of CCRs allow this modification (Megalodon, KISS, etc). For those who don’t have their rebreather encased in a yellow box (or any other colour), here are some reasons why a CCR diver would like to have their tanks upright:

HOW TO DEAL WITH AN UNCONSCIOUS REBREATHER DIVER

By Cedric Verdier

The title of this article was originally: “What to do if a convulsion happens”. Based on a lot of discussion, private or on various Forums, the protocol being presented here can actually be used for any kind of situation where an unconscious rebreather diver is found underwater.

The main goal of this article is to end up with some guidelines to safely and efficiently deal with an unconscious diver. Those guidelines are purposely:
- Simple and easy to remember. In a real life emergency the technique is always more complex to perform and more difficult to remember, even if the rescuer practises it on a regular basis.
- Flexible enough to be used in most of the circumstances (dry suit or wet suit, overhead environment or open water, deep Trimix or shallow Nitrox dive, etc) and with all the rebreathers available (back-mounted/OTS CLs, SCR/CCR, FFM, etc).

Remember that the most important factors are:

So the most important thing to remember is to bring the victim to the surface safely and as quickly as reasonable. The initial cause of the unconsciousness is not really crucial and the rescuer shouldn’t loose a lot of precious time to determine if they are dealing with Hypercapnia, Hypoxia or Hyperoxia.

(to be continued)

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10 QUESTIONS ABOUT DIRrebreather

By Cedric Verdier

1. What is DIRrebreather?

Since its implementation a few years ago, the Doing It Right philosophy has gained in popularity not only in the cave diving community, but also amongst technical divers and even recreational divers worldwide.
Unfortunately, so far, only open circuit scuba divers and a handful of semi-closed circuit rebreather divers could apply this set of rules about equipment configuration and dive procedures. Closed-Circuit Rebreathers divers were considered like black sheeps, as their units were dangerous and their procedures dodgy. However, almost clandestinely, some CCR divers and Instructors decided to found what is now called DIRrebreather and to set up logical and simple rules that could apply to the DIR mindset AND CCR diving. We just dream about the best of both worlds!

An impressive work has already been done by the WKPP members and GUE Instructors in order to adapt the DIR Philosophy to the Halcyon RB80 Semi-Closed Circuit Rebreather. But many people thought that Closed-Circuit Rebreathers "can't be DIR".

The DIRrebreather team is made of experienced and active Rebreather explorers and instructors who share the same goal: implementing the DIR Philosophy into Rebreather diving.

Why diving DIR with a rebreather? Simply consider the following questions:

We strongly believe that proper training, thorough planning, team procedures, equipment selection and adaptation can help the rebreather diver to be a DIR diver. Standardization should help to make simpler and safer dives, avoiding confusion and improving team work and communication, especially when problems occur.

(To be continued)

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COMFORT AND EFFICIENCY WITH A REBREATHER

By Cedric Verdier

Most of the articles one can find about rebreathers deal with potential problems and limits of these wonderful pieces of kit. They give extensive information about oxygen sensors, scrubber duration, electronics and any of the risks associated with this kind of equipment. Becoming proficient with the emergency procedures is a very important component of training and experience.

But an aspect that is sometimes a little bit overlooked is how to properly dive with a rebreather. Unfortunately even some experienced rebreather divers are not comfortable and efficient with their rig.
Their equipment is a mess and you hardly see their face underneath 200 hoses, straps and D-rings. They swim as gracefully as a grasshopper with a portable fridge strapped on its back and a vacuum cleaner around its head. When asked the reason why they struggle most of time they spent underwater, most of them finally agree that their trim sucks!

Rebreather divers are most of the time so focused on how to adapt and to improve their units and how to safely deal with all these modifications that they forget the most important skills any diver with any kind of equipment should master. Words like simplicity and ease disappeared from their vocabulary.

(To be continued)

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BAILING OUT! YES BUT HOW?

By Cedric Verdier

Bailing out to Open Circuit is like falling in the snow when you learn skiing. It’s a solution when facing a problem. Not always the most elegant solution, but always the easiest one and most of the time, the most efficient one.
But Open Circuit bail-out is actually much more than simply going off the loop and breathing from another second stage. There are lots of possibilities…

1. Sanity Breaths

When dealing with most of the problems that could occur with a rebreather (equipment failure, physiological problem, etc), one of the first reactions should be to do a diluent flush to make sure you breathe a safe gas for the few seconds you’ll need to switch to OC and take some sanity breaths from a known mix. 4 or 5 breaths should help most of the divers experiencing any kind of symptoms to quickly regaining their ability to think properly and to react in the most efficient way. In case of hyperoxia, hypoxia, mild hypercapnia, or any mechanical or electronical problem, a good diluent flush followed by some sanity breaths can help. Even if this doesn’t help, most of the time it doesn’t make any harm (if the mix is safe to breathe at that depth), apart from depleting the stock of gas available.

These sanity breaths can be done in different ways:
- BOV (Bail-out Valve). That’s generally the easiest and fastest way. There is no need to remove the mouthpiece so no stress. The BOV is already in the mouth so no delay, no risk of drowning or panic. Therefore, a BOV is extremely useful, even required when diving with a Full-Face Mask. Some rebreathers come with a BOV fitted (Kiss, RB80, Cis-Lunar, etc), or it can be purchased separately (Golem Gear, Nemo, etc). The BOV is normally fitted to the on-board diluent but with a quick-connect, all your dreams can be fulfilled…

(To be continued)

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MODIFYING YOUR MEG FOR DEEP DIVING

By Cedric Verdier

Having spent the last ten years diving and teaching rebreathers, I had the opportunity to try most of the existing models, either commercially available, homebuilt or restricted to the military market. All of them have some benefits and some disadvantages, but none of them matched my needs like the ISC Megalodon CCR (in a previous article, I explained why the Meg became my favourite rebreather instead of the well-know APD Inspiration).
However nothing could be perfect for everyone and I had to slightly modify my rebreather to better suit all the different types of diving I do. Some of these changes might be useful for other Meg divers (or any other CCR), some are very specific to the environment I dive in, the procedures I follow or the way I’m used to dive and work underwater.

1. For a comfortable and streamlined rig

Without being a fully DIR believer (I wouldn’t dive a CCR otherwise!), I rather like to have a streamlined, neat and tidy equipment. So one of the first things I did with my Meg was to check if I needed all the Velcro straps, D-rings and plastic fastex buckles one can find on the counterlungs. I ended up with the conclusion that:
- I don’t need any Velcro strap. With less hoses (see below), there is no need for the Velcro straps on both sides. The hoses are routed beneath other components that keep them in place. So I cut all the Velcro…
- I don’t like the plastic buckles that hold the CLs. They can break or accidentally open. As I don’t need the D-rings either, I just cut all of them and replaced everything with small loops of chock cords with SS dog clips. It’s light, simple and always adjusted. I clip the CLs directly on some holes on the Koplin backplate and it keeps the CLs and the breathing hoses close to the chest, in a very low position on the shoulder and under the arms.
Leon Scamahorn was also kind enough to sew and re-size my counter-lungs to have a flatter and more streamlined profile.
(To be continued)

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REBREATHER FOR CAVE DIVING

by Cedric Verdier

The use of rebreathers in caves is not new. Hans and Lotte Hass used a rebreather to venture a little bit in some marine caves quite a few decades ago. Names like Rob Palmer in the UK, Bill Stone, George Irvine and Jarrod Jablonski in the USA or Olivier Isler in Europe, are strongly linked to rebreathers and cave diving. Recreational cave divers discovered Oxygen CCR in the Navy surplus, Draeger Dolphin and more recently APD Inspiration. Nowadays, there are many different brands and models and they become even more popular within the cave diving community worldwide.

Why?

So why using a rebreather for cave diving, and what kind of benefits this type of equipment has compared to the highly reliable conventional open circuit scuba?

- Extended dive time. One of main features of a rebreather in general is the longer dive time that one can expect. In a cave it means a longer exploration and the ability to do penetration dives much longer and further than what could be done with conventional open circuit scuba. But the rebreather also gives an additional safety margin as it provides the cave diver with more time to deal with an emergency situation. It could be a lost line situation, when the way to the exit is unknown, or it could be a situation when a team member is lost and extra time is required to look for them. A light failure or a complete silt-out is also a situation where extra time is needed, as the progression to the exit is very often drastically slowed.

(To be continued)

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HOW TO FIT AND USE A KIRBY MORGAN SUPERMASK M-48 WITH A REBREATHER

By Cedric Verdier

It has been just over a couple of months that I use the M-48 Full-face mask made by Kirby Morgan. I ordered it a few weeks before the Yamashiro Project dives in the Philippines and I needed a few dives and improvements in order to be fully satisfied with it. I used or tried quite a lot of Full-Face masks in the past (Ocean Reef, KMB, AGA, etc) but it was the first one I use with a rebreather, mainly because of its unique design: it’s made of 2 separate compartments, the upper one being an almost standard face mask, the lower one being a dry detachable compartment with a mouthpiece. One can remove the pod and breathe from another mouthpiece underwater, without having to remove the entire full-face mask. This is the only FFM I’m aware of that has this feature, a very interesting one for a rebreather diver.

Benefits

When I saw this mask for the first time, during a cave dive with another rebreather diver, I was surprised and interested. I had the feeling that this mask could have a lot of benefits for the type of dives I normally do:

(To be continued)

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PRELIMINARY REPORT ABOUT THE PRE-PRODUCTION UNIT OF THE ISC MEGALODON RADIAL SCRUBBER

By Cedric Verdier

I had the chance to thoroughly test the radial scrubber in various diving environments and at different depths.

Depths:
From 10m to 180m (2 to 19ATA)

Temperature:
All the dives I have done with the radial scrubber were in warm tropical waters, with temperature ranging from 22C at depth up to 30C in the shallows.

Absorbent material:
Different brands of Sodalime were used, mainly Sofnolime 797, Grace SodaSorb and Draeger DiveSorb.
According to Leon Scamahorn, this scrubber (7.5lb/3.4kg) was tested at ANSTI and the HSE lab in the UK. The canister was tested compared to the axial scrubber and to different other scrubbers on the market, and the final result was far beyond expectations for WOB and duration.  I have some of the results but I’m sure the all test results will be released when appropriate.

Level of exertion:
Most of the dives have been done at a normal swim pace. Nevertheless a high level of exertion was necessary during some of the dives, mainly because of the current I found at some places.

(To be continued)

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CONSIDERING A BAIL-OUT REBREATHER

By Cedric Verdier

It always seemed to me so great to dive with a rebreather and so stupid to rely on the old fashioned open circuit scuba equipment if time comes to bail-out. So I played around with the idea of a bail-out rebreather (or a BOB: Bail-out Breather, as it sounds much better!) since quite a long time, without real success. And it looks like I’m not the only one.

BOB, a rationale

When do we need to bail out when we use a rebreather, especially a Closed-Circuit Rebreather? There are actually two types of situations:

A similar procedure will be applied in case of electronics failure. Some sanity breaths may help before switching to semi-closed rebreather mode. Same story in case of mild hypercapnia but some divers testify that it takes a very long time to recover from a CO2 hit and it can only be done on OC.

So it looks like, even if we have a bail-out rebreather, we still need a small amount of open circuit gas at least to clear the head, rest and properly think, before being able to start the emergency procedure.

(To be continued)

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HOW TO MAKE A DIR INSPIRATION CCR

By Cedric Verdier

A DIR Inspiration CCR. I really like this idea. It sounds almost as impossible as a cheap Ferrari.
As everybody can read so many things on the Internet about the “Doing It Right” approach, some rebreather divers may have a real wish to be part of the DIR community. Unfortunately some of the DIR gourous have been definitely against the Inspiration CCR (see the article “Inspiration or Expiration” and some violent posts from George Irvine III: “You need a shovel)
But don’t worry: you still can adhere to the DIR principle and apply some of the basic principles of the hogarthian philosophy to your favourite rebreather. You’ll be considered as a paria by the real DIR guys, and as a traitor by the CCR divers. But you don’t care. You Do It Right the rebreather way!

You must understand that the general concept is to:

If you think that the 4th item is obviously the most important, you first need to buy a black cover to replace the existing ugly-yellow-highly-visible-but-not-Tech-diving-compliant ABS cover.
Then you may use the following tips to modify your Classic Inspiration and, to a certain extend, your Vision Electronics Inspiration/Evolution.

(To be continued)

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HOW TO MAKE SOLO REBREATHER DIVING SAFER?

by Cedric Verdier

Discussions about diving are very often boring. Always the same stories about numerous sharks dangerously close, strong current ripping a mask off or friendly dolphins playing during a deco stop. We heard them so many times. So if you want to have some fun, simply say that you dive on your own with a rebreather and wait for the reactions. You’ll hear some nasty comments about you being an accident waiting to happen, and some people will clearly show you their option about your mental health.
Why? Because everybody knows that CCR Solo diving is the most stupid thing to do on Earth after driving a motorbike eyes closed in Bangkok or throwing sand on Mike Tyson’s face during his nap.
We all know that.
Even the stats show that most of the rebreather fatalities that occurred in the past few years involved CCR divers diving on their own.

Unfortunately, a poll amongst the rebreather diver community shown that only less than 8% of the rebreather divers who participated in the poll never did a solo dive. The other 92% have done at least a few solo dives, with 33% doing mostly solo diving.

Of course, a poll only represents the opinion of a few individuals who want to answer the questions. It cannot be considered as the “big picture” of the entire rebreather diver community. Nevertheless, it shows that some rebreather divers keep on diving solo, even if the perceived risk is so high…

Why people don’t dive solo with a rebreather?

Simply because that’s one of the most basic rules one learns during the Open Water Diver course: "Never dive alone". It’s so famous that it’s almost a dogma. And it sounds so logical...

(To be continued)

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SIDEMOUNT CONFIGURATION FOR REBREATHER DIVERS

By Cedric Verdier

It has been a year now since I started to exclusively sidemount the off-board tanks of my Rebreather (either a Megalodon CCR or an Evolution CCR). Why? Simply because it's much more convenient! Let me explain the rationale.

1. A Sidemount kit for Open Circuit Divers

A few years ago, there was no commercially available Sidemount kit for open circuit cave explorers. In the dark ages of cave diving, those who want a Sidemount configuration had to build their own equipment, mainly based on BCs and inner tubes. Then some kits like the Armadillo or the Dive Rite came into the market and gained in popularity as there are definitely some good points in using this kind of configuration:

- Carrying each tank on the side, under the armpits, allows avoiding the large bulkiness of a twinset strapped on your back. So it gives a very streamlined profile when swimming horizontally or exploring low passages for a long time

- With an easy-to-remove attachment system, each tank can be brought in front of the diver when the time comes to go through a major restriction.

- In some place, you can’t find a twinset with an isolation manifold. A Sidemount configuration is a good alternative to the traditional independent tanks.

- It's simple, reliable and much easier to carry than a Twinset, a clear benefit when you have to carry all the equipment for a long distance, either for sump diving, or for a long trip to an unexplored Cenote deep into the Mexican jungle.

But like everything in diving, it needs some training and experience as the diver has to manage two independent gas supplies instead of the traditional twinset configuration with an isolation manifold. Not really DIR but used by a fair amount of Open Circuit cave divers worldwide.

(To be continued)

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WHERE IS THE SAFETY MARGIN WITH A CCR?

by Cedric Verdier

There used to be a time when there was no safety margin in any activity that the human being wanted to participate in. In a merciless prehistoric world, on a daily basis, the cavemen were hunting with stones and sticks, a large variety of predators the size of a truck, expecting to feed a hungry family.
Then Winchester gave the men the ability to kill wild animals while staying at a comfortable distance, without risking their life. Safety margin was born.

As recreational divers, we were taught to plan for realistic safety margins. Remember: Rule number one states that you should always start your final ascent with at least 50 bar/500 psi in your cylinder.
As a technical diver, you suddenly discovered that this safety margin wasn’t enough when doing deeper dives with required decompression, or even worse, when diving in an overhead environment.

As rebreather divers, what kind of safety margin do we have?

Rebreather diving is not an exact science

Let’s put it that way: cooking pasta, launching sky rocket or diving with a rebreather all shares a common point: nothing is ever guarantee to work.

(To be continued)

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INSPIRATION vs MEGALODON

By Cedric Verdier

It’s already more than a year and a half that I exclusively use my Megalodon CCR Rebreather after having been the first Inspiration diver and Instructor in France, almost 8 years ago. I travelled in many different places in the world, taught quite a lot of CCR courses with both units (and since several months with the Evolution as well) and had most of the problems you can imagine or experience with all theses units. I ended up with considering the Megalodon as one of the most performing rebreathers on the market, having a lot of benefits compared to the Evolution or the Inspiration. They are based on my needs and the problems some of my students encountered, but they maybe not reflect your needs or diving requirements:

- Flexibility and transportation: it’s clearly one of the major points for me. It’s possible to use any size of cylinders and to configurate them the way I want. The in-board gas can be carried on the back, de-inverted or even as sling tanks or side-mounted tanks. It’s therefore possible to travel with no tanks and simply use the ones available from the local dive center. Then I clearly need to adjust my trim based on the size and material of the cylinders but it’s better than having to travel with tanks just because the cover box on my YBOD doesn’t provide me with any flexibility. Some Inspiration divers solved this issue by buying a DT box or a similar SS Frame, but it adds to the cost and the overall weight.
My unit (without tanks) and all my diving equipment for warm water deep diving (my favourite environment!) easily fit in a big dive bag with wheel. Because of weight limitation in an asian airline, I was even able to put my rebreather in a small trolley case I took as a hand luggage (well over the weight limits but the check-in staff didn’t check…)
Flexibility also comes into consideration when it goes to actual type of diving. Depending of the planned dive profile, I simply use different tanks (and very soon a different scrubber) that exactly fit my needs (duration, depth, workload, etc).

(To be continued)

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THE 7 DEADLY SINS OF A REBREATHER DIVER

by Cedric Verdier

Except if you spent a few years in a catholic church or a few hours enjoying the movie with Brad Pitt and Morgan Freeman, the seven deadly sins are often considered as a notion of the past. In the modern world, examples of pride or envy don’t seem to immediately drive the sinner to hell, and lust is all over the Internet.

Nevertheless they should be regarded as valid for a rebreather diver, using a CCR or SCR. Looking at the statistics and the accident reports, the seven deadly sins of a rebreather diver can surely help you to buy an express ticket to hell. 1st class. One way.

GLUTTONY
Our body needs food. Our body needs oxygen too. But too much food or too much oxygen can also kill you sooner or later. A setpoint too high on an eCCR, exceeding the MOD on an SCR, or simply exceeding the physiological limits of oxygen exposure can lead a rebreather diver to oxygen toxicity and its various manifestations (acute Oxtox, whole body toxicity, O2-induced myopia).

--> Limit your oxygen exposure.

(To be continued)

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